Mugen no Shinzou II
[夢幻の心臓II]
1985年11月
“The original Dragon Quest”
Mugen no Shinzo II, published by Crystal Soft in November 1985 for the NEC PC-8801, PC-98, Sharp X1, Fujitsu Micro 7, and Sharp MZ-2500, is often regarded as the original Dragon Quest.
Mugen no Shinzō II is a traditional RPG combining Ultima’s top-down 2D world map and Wizardry’s command-based battle system. It serves as the direct sequel to Mugen no Shinzo, yet its systems have been renewed from top to bottom, making it feel like a completely different game.
The game was painstakingly refined, and this careful craftsmanship became one of its defining features.
Because the game is written in machine language, it runs at a good speed, and disk-saving is quick — making the whole experience pleasantly smooth to play.
There’s no background music, but the game uses different beeps for moving, swinging a sword, and casting magic.
Mugen no Shinzo II also provides straightforward, easy-to-play dungeons with no 3D environments. It is a relatively well-balanced RPG with a high degree of freedom and an unparalleled sense of scale.
In the initial Mugen no Shinzou, the player obtains the Dream Heart and ultimately escapes the Dream World and manages to return to life. But when he wakes up in the middle of a forest and looks around, he finds the landscape utterly unfamiliar and has no memory of it at all. At that moment, a shadow swept past the warrior, and a terrifying cry echoed high above his head. A gigantic dragon, easily stretching fifty meters long, soared through the skies, breathing flames from its mouth. “Is this another dream world?” In truth, he wasn’t brought back to his original world at all, but to another world known as Elder Ain - one that closely resembled his own, yet where magical power had not yet declined. His hope of going back to his own world was replaced by disappointment. At least he is alive.
Elder Ain is the human-inhabited dimension among the fifteen-dimensional worlds created by the God who formed the universe.
Elder Ain is split into three parts that the player must explore and ultimately conquer. The world of humans, the world of elves, and the world of demons. There is no limit to the number of days, unlike in the first installment.
To get back to his original world, the player must collect three colored stones out of the four scattered across the human world, the elf world, and the demon world, allowing him to enter the castle where the final boss resides.
It is a variation of the pattern seen in Ultima IV and Hydlide.
Role-playing games have long incorporated a wide range of puzzle-solving mechanics where the player searches for hidden items based on clues. It is an exploration feature that can be seen as one of the true pleasures of the genre, and one that has persisted since the very beginning.
The world map in Mugen no Shinzo II is a flat, two-dimensional terrain map, and dungeon and town interiors are shown in the same flat-map format. The terrain screen is significantly larger than the 5×5-tile display of the previous episode, NPCs are now visible on the map, and the player can freely move around towns in all directions, including diagonally, using only the directional keys on the numeric keypad.
When Mugen no Shinzo II was released at the end of 1985, terrain maps became more expressive, with tree and mountain graphics layered alternately, and the display area expanded to roughly 9 by 9 tiles. The tree leaves and mountain surfaces are painted in solid green and red, but thanks to a neutral-color rendering method applied through the tiles, they acquire hues that resemble dark green or brown.
To overcome the computer’s eight-color limitation, the game alternates yellow and red pixels, creating the impression of more vivid colors to simulate extra colors.
All areas—field, town, dungeon—are unified into a 2D top-view perspective.
Instead of instantly revealing all surroundings, the visible area is limited according to where the hero stands. This field-of-vision mechanic, inherited from Ultima III, shifts the player’s field of vision based on the terrain, the hero’s position, and nearby obstacles.
Forests and mountains block the character’s vision, and anything beyond them that cannot be seen from the main character’s viewpoint is hidden from the field of vision and rendered in black on the screen.
The limited-visibility system serves not just immersion and gameplay, but performance as well. Mugen no Shinzo II is also compatible with the first-generation of the PC-8801 released in 1981. This model is significantly less powerful than its successor, the PC-8801mkIISR, and when compared to the SR’s high-speed mode, movement on the original PC-88 is noticeably slower. By decreasing the amount of rendering required on the map, the game maintains acceptable display performance across all microcomputer models.
This visibility mechanic extends to towns as well, and building interiors aren’t fully displayed.
Inside a cave or tower, the map’s display area is reduced, and using a torch expands the field of visibility.
Monsters become visible whenever they fall within the player’s field of view, whether on the overworld or inside dungeons, and they move like in an action RPG.
The most powerful monsters can appear on the field right from the beginning of the game.
Additionally, since visibility is restricted, if the player explores a forest without seeing around him, he may be attacked by a fierce monster out of nowhere.
This creates a particular thrill and a sense of realism during dungeon exploration. By nature, flat 2D maps come with the drawback that the player can see beyond walls, thereby making it easier to mentally visualize his location. He can identify features such as treasure chests or stairways even before entering the room. This creates a discrepancy with real-world logic, resulting in less immersion compared to 3D mapping systems.
By embracing a field-of-vision mechanic, Mugen no Shinzo II eliminates this inconsistency. The player sees only what’s around him and can’t know what’s inside a room until he goes in. It’s an ideal way to enhance realism.
In Mugen no Shinzo II, the player starts in the middle of a forest where he cannot see anything around him. The forest looks large because the player’s vision is limited, but it’s really just about 5×5 tiles and very small. Furthermore, no enemies are initially placed around the starting point, allowing the player to move around this area without encountering any adversaries for some time.
The northern and eastern corners offer a wide field of vision, allowing the player to spot a town or a castle after only a few steps. And because the southern half is completely enclosed by the sea and a river, even if he moves in that direction, he will inevitably end up seeing the town or the castle. In the end, the layout is such that the player has no real choice but to head either northeast or northwest, and he always winds up near the town.
However, powerful enemies such as gargoyles and goblins are placed quickly in front of the player as soon as he exits the forest, and if he doesn’t avoid them, he will be forced into a battle.
If the player dies, he can restart from his save point by pressing a single key, and if he has never saved, he restarts from the starting point. The game is automatically saved when the player leaves a town, and if he dies, he will restart from that town instead of the starting point.
By surrounding the starting point with the ocean, mountains, and powerful enemies, and trapping the player within, the game continuously directs him toward a town or a castle.
The gameplay experience can therefore vary depending on the player’s choices. Depending on his actions, the player may either locate the town right away and obtain information about the monsters on the field, or he may reach it only after moving along the coast and encountering enemies on the way first.
This narrative element structures the game beautifully and resembles a form of level design.
Mugen no Shinzo II uses a menu system based on cursor movement. Consequently, most operations can be executed solely with the directional inputs and the confirm and cancel keys assigned to the numeric keypad. The only exceptions are the name entry at the start of the game and the numerical input required during gameplay; in both situations, direct typing is more convenient than menu-based selection. The confirm and cancel functions are likewise mapped to the 5 and 0 keys, enabling the player to play entirely with the numeric keypad.
The game additionally supports a controller, which replaces the numeric keypad’s movement inputs.
The menu contains eleven command options: Pass, Use an item, Cast a spell, Discard an item, Equipment, Remove or change equipment, Change name, Dismiss a party member, View status, Sound settings, Change game speed, and Save game. Character names and text speed can be modified through the in-game menu. Thus, the player can select the maximum speed setting and finish battles almost instantly.
When the player selects “View Status” in the menu, the character’s detailed status is displayed line by line in the message area at the bottom of the screen, with statistics like strength and dexterity shown one after the other. The status display does not show attack power, nor does it list weapons or other equipment.
The option to view a detailed status screen was very common in PC RPGs at the time.
Interacting with NPCs is done simply by moving the character and coming into contact with local villagers. When the player comes into contact with an object, a menu automatically appears with the corresponding action, so he doesn’t have to select a speaking direction or open the menu to call up commands. This system allows for a simple menu that eliminates redundant elements.
Unlike the previous installment, in which the player ventured out alone, Mugen no Shinzo II lets the player recruit companions and form a party freely, and journey with up to five adventurers at his side. The game becomes easier to play once the party is formed. There are 39 potential allies in total. However, the hero is the only character the player can create, and the only aspect he can define is his name. The class and stats are fixed and unique to the protagonist.
Recruitment is not mandatory. The remaining potential party members are recruited from adventurers found in towns and castles, and the player can form a party according to his preferences. The party can be freely reorganized anytime and anywhere. However, although certain adventurers will accompany the player at no cost, others require a daily fee. The player can also change his party members freely, but certain characters will no longer agree to rejoin the party once their contract has been terminated. When the player dismisses a party member, it must be done in a safe location, such as a town; otherwise, the trust parameter will decline and companions may desert the party without warning.
Each character possesses two types of attributes: race and ability.
There are four races: Human, Elf, Dwarf, and Water. Each has its own strengths and weaknesses.
There are seven categories of abilities: Combat, Luck, Magic, Holy, Piloting, Word Spirit, and Hero. These are attributes originally assigned to each character, and they cannot be changed. However, certain abilities may be obtained later on, and the character’s class is defined by a combination of his inherent abilities and those acquired subsequently. Characters are able to change their class, eventually gaining access to advanced professions. For example, if a character born with the “Combat” ability later acquires “Magic,” he advances to the class of sorcerer. In addition, the player can change the main character’s class, elevating him to the rank of Hero.
Because certain abilities are inaccessible to specific character’s race, the unique strengths and weaknesses of each race take on real importance. A well-balanced party should include a mix of combat and magic types, as well as auxiliary roles such as healing and support.
Depending on his abilities, the player can acquire special skills that prove useful during the adventure. Luck removes treasure-chest traps, Magic grants access to sorcerer spells, Holy enables the use of priest magic, and Piloting allows the player to command a ship. Combat relates to close-quarters fighting, though it causes no significant changes. Hero is a designation reserved for the protagonist, while Word Spirit belongs to the princess, allowing her to decipher certain story sequences, and does not constitute a skill in itself.
This means the player needs to choose companions with the right abilities for each challenge and form the party that suits the situation best. The degree of freedom in party building is extremely high. Depending on the combinations chosen, the resulting party may be very strong—or surprisingly weak. This open-ended design is one of the main charms of the game.
When the party encounters a wandering monster, whether on the field or within a dungeon, a battle begins.
Only one type of enemy can join a battle at a time, and the number of enemies that appear is determined by that enemy type. The dragon always shows up alone, and gargoyles always appear in threes, and their numbers never vary.
The power and type of enemies encountered on the field are not fixed according to the terrain, and enemies can move freely anywhere on the map. Enemies of different strength levels thus coexist on the same terrain. However, the same enemy will have different random stats each time it is encountered.
This system gives a strong sense of realism. Enemies suddenly leap out from the shadows, wait inside rooms, and advance toward the player on the field.
The game uses a classic turn-based command selection system, and battles play out quickly. The battle screen now displays character portraits, stats, and enemy information more clearly. Commands are executed instantly, and the pace of play is extremely comfortable.
The battle graphics are impressive, with monsters displayed in close-up, and even though they use only single images, the artwork employs shadowing in a captivating manner.
The player can manage his party and arrange his companions across two separate lines of attack. Front-line members are more vulnerable to attacks but deal more damage than those in the back.
The player can either fight the enemies head-on or run away.
The player can attacks using physical strikes or magical spells. He can target enemies in any order according to his strategy, and the remaining HP of each enemy is displayed on screen.
The player can use the Defense command, which never fails and stops every attack. If the player uses the Defend command, the character will not take any damage. The weaker party members or newly recruited allies can therefore survive even the fiercest battles by remaining in a defensive stance until they level up.
The success rate for escaping battles is quite high, and it is recommended that the player run from the tougher monsters until he has gained several levels.
If the player runs away, the enemy disappears from the screen for a few seconds and then moves randomly across the map. If the player meets a strong enemy in a confined dungeon room and attempts to flee, the enemy will pursue him onto the field map, making another battle almost inevitable. At this moment, the player’s unity and empathy with the protagonist reaches its maximum.
After every successful battle, the player earns experience points, and he automatically levels up once his accumulated points reach 255.
The experience points awarded by enemies varies according to the character’s level, the number of people in the party, and each character’s personality. The higher the level and the larger the party, the fewer experience points the player receives from defeating enemies. Therefore, by strengthening the main character, then reducing the number of people in the party and defeating powerful enemies, the player can effectively level up low-level companions from the earliest stages of the game.
The player can attain his first level increase after approximately five battles. When the battle ends, a short jingle plays, and the level goes up instantly. After each level-up, the player can return to the castle, where the king grants him a reward of 50 gold coins.
As their abilities increase, magicians can learn new spells.
The game features a unique satiety system, forcing characters to eat food purchased in shops. Naturally, the quantity of food required increases as the number of party members grows. When the player runs out of food, his HP and MP decrease, and the game ends if either hit zero. If the player travels too far in one day, he may collapse from hunger.
Even if the player has no recovery spells or items, he can gradually restore his HP by moving around on the field map, as long as he has food.
Mugen no Shinzo II tells a classic story in which a warrior returns from the dream world, becomes a hero, gathers allies, and embarks on a collective journey to defeat the invader, the Prince of Darkness.
Mugen no Shinzo II thus adopts a narrative structure built around the words “Hero” and “Demon King.”
The main character is depicted as a legendary hero, a legendary knight, a human hero, a hero of virtue, and a hero destined to fulfill the world’s greatest hopes. He stands as a hero chosen by a force far beyond himself, bearing a mission that is nearly divine in nature. After he saves the princess, she asks if he really is the hero chosen by destiny.
Interactions with characters play a key role in the narrative structure, and there are different types of conversations.
These include conversations related to gameplay strategies and tips, conversations tied to the story, dialogues that develop the world and the atmosphere of each town, humorous exchanges, and conversations that have no particular purpose.
Rather than expanding its world vision, the game focuses on its storyline and employs a variety of inventive techniques to entertain the player.
The first part of the game follows a story that guide the player through a specific order of events incorporating treasure- hunting elements.
In the human world, the player is unable to acquire the Silver Idol unless he defeats the Cyclops, he cannot rescue the princess without the Silver Idol, and he cannot reach the entrance to the demon world until he has saved the princess.
In addition, the order in which the three worlds—the human world, the elf world, and the demon world—are explored is partly dictated by the strength of the enemies encountered.
The initial objective is to survive and become stronger, level up, obtain weapons and armor, and buy food.
Around the forest, the player encounters various monsters on the field, such as gargoyles that cast sleep spells, weak zombies that carry gold coins, orcs, lizardmen, and goblins.
The player visits the king’s castle for the first time. There, he learns from King Salua that the princess traveled to Arcadia Castle and never returned.
In the nearby free city of Nagasse, the player can buy weapons, armor, tools, medicine, and more.
In the magical city of Excelio, the player can buy crystal balls and elven eye patches that allow him to see hidden areas. The city also has doctors who use magic to cure petrification.
The nearby free city of Enuta is a city of thieves. It has almost no significance from a story perspective.
Finally, the religious city of Daluan is a key location where the player can gather crucial information about the demon.
The demon has divided his weaknesses among ten Black Knights, dispersing them throughout the Demon World. Consequently, the player must defeat all ten Black Knights before the demon himself can be overcome. Known by many names—the Prince of Darkness, the Demon, the Thief of God’s Power, this entity originates from none of the sixteen dimensions. He descended upon the world riding a meteor from beyond the sky. Normal magic has little effect on him, and only a sacred weapon created by an ancient god can defeat him.
Along the way to his first mission, the player eventually comes across Arcadia castle; upon entering it, he discovers that it has been destroyed, while the survivors have sealed themselves away in the underground passages. They claim to be the princess’s bodyguards—among the few who survived—and reveal that Princess Sylvia is being held captive in the castle’s prison.
Princess Sylvia went to inspect Arcadia Castle, found it in ruins, and was captured by a Cyclops who imprisoned her in the underground throne room beneath the castle.
The player comes across a locked door, with a woman held captive inside.
RPGs commonly include cartographic representations of collapsed or ruined areas. This functions as an environmental storytelling technique that gives meaning to the story. The destruction of a region is frequently employed as a narrative technique to highlight the antagonist.
After defeating the formidable enemy that ruled the ruined castle, claiming its treasures, and rescuing the young woman, she commands the player to escort her back to Salua Castle.
Only then does the player realize she is Sylvia, the princess of Salua. Once the player recruits her into his party, conversations with NPC characters make it clear that she is the key to defeating the demon. Should the player decline to recruit her, the princess asks him whether he is truly the hero chosen by destiny, and the conversation ends. This dialogue repeats until she becomes a party member.
After Sylvia joins the player and he escorts her back to the castle, the king expresses his gratitude and bows before him.
Should the player speak to the queen first, she tells Sylvia to quickly return to her father.
The game also features other optional dialogue lines, some of which have NPCs addressing the player by the name he chose at the beginning. Though brief, these dialogues were particularly well designed for the time.
Afterward, Sylvia withdraws to the meditation hall to learn the Word Spirit spell, at which point she leaves the party.
Once her training is complete, she rejoins the party.
Sylvia is a crucial character in bringing the adventure to its conclusion and a companion deeply involved in the main storyline. She is portrayed as a strong woman who fights alongside the hero to fulfill her mission. She alone bears the unique ability to wield the words necessary to defeat the demon.
The player obtains the Hero’s Emblem, the Oak, and the Pegasus Feather.
After one last audience with King Salua, the player’s profession is changed to Hero.
The player then heads to the Red Tower in order to acquire the Black Stone. On the first floor of this labyrinth stands Dullahan, the tower’s fearsome guardian. On the fifth floor, upon defeating the Snake, the player acquires the Glorious Hands for Stealing, enabling him to switch his class to a thief-type profession, and the Hero’s Crest. At last, the player acquires the Black Stone on the sixth floor.
He ventures into the Astral Cave, where a mysterious portal enables travel between dimensions.
There are two treasure chests on the first basement level, containing a Book of Sorcery and a Runic Seal. These discoveries echo the words of a sorcerer in the magical city of Excelio: “To become a magician, you need a magic book; to become a monk, a runic mark.”
A fearsome Minotaur guards the entrance to the second basement level. It is the most powerful monster in the human world.
The player travels through the distortion portal to reach the world of the Elves, a terrifying realm filled with monsters. In this land, even the strongest party of heroes from the human world is left with no option other than fleeing for survival. Furthermore, upon arriving at the elven village, he is refused entry outright.
The player cannot enter the village and is chased away by the guards standing in front of the building. The elves have strained relations with the dwarves and harbor a strong dislike for humans.
However, when he travels to the elven castle and meets the king, he is granted permission to enter and leave the village, since they share a common objective—to defeat the demon. In any case, he cannot enter the elven village if he has a dwarf in his party, even though dwarves are strong companions and join for free.
This moment is significant to the narrative, as it illustrates how various races choose to cooperate—or refuse to do so—when facing a common enemy.
In Mugen no Shinzo II, the story is told through effective use of the companion system. In addition, conversations with party members change as the story progresses.
The game presents a continuous stream of dialogue that conveys a unified story, in which NPCs and party members function as core narrative elements.
At the elven castle, the player is informed that a Green Stone lies hidden within the Troll Castle, that a Golden Ring grants access to the Wandering Tower, and that the demon’s true form is said to be hideous beyond imagination.
In the marine village, the player is revealed vital knowledge about the stones and the demon world. The Green Stone uncovers the Demon Castle, the Red Stone removes lava, the Blue Stone stops water, and the Black Stone grants access to the demon world.
The Dream Heart is an evil relic, entrusted to the elves by the God of Darkness, on behalf of the God of Creation.
In the elven village, the gathering of information continues. The player is told that the Devil’s Castle is merely an illusion, that the demon possesses his own world, and that King Sarua in the human world is secretly creating a passage to it.
In the dwarves village, the player is told that a sacred sword was forged from fragments of the divine sword, but its power was so great that the dwarves had to conceal it within the Wandering Tower.
The player travels to the Troll Castle and frees two elves—Vanille and Abolas—who were being held captive by trolls deep within its dungeons. The two elves were once a single, immensely powerful entity that was divided in two by a curse cast 1,700 years in the past.
Back in the elven village, the elder offers to reunite the two beings and revive the mage Uluru, an exceptional character who alone can wield every sorcerer spell from the very first level.
The player goes back to the Troll Castle to retrieve the Green Stone, and acquires a Fog Horn and a Compass within a massive labyrinthine cave in which all magical powers are suppressed. The horn has the power to awaken an ancient ghost ship that slumbers within the human world. On the fourth underground level of the cave, a formidable griffin awaits. On the sixth level, the player uncovers an infernal room filled with 66 trapped treasure chests.
The player uses the compass to reveal the location of the Wandering Tower, —an ever-moving tower with no permanent location that holds the game’s most powerful sacred sword, destined for the hero alone —the only weapon capable of truly defeating the demon.
The player goes back to the human world.
In the city of Nagasse, a local resident recounts: “As I watched the sea from a tree near the magical city, I heard a horn sound, and soon after, a ghost ship started rising from the sea.”
The tree stands close to the magical city of Excelio, and the area is filled with an ominous atmosphere.
In the basement of Arcadia Castle, the player recruits Kumon the sailor, a character who can sail a ship. After blowing the foghorn near the tree, the player sails across the ocean and reaches the ghost ship.
An invisible monster emerges. The Dark Knight, dressed in golden armor, appears within the ghost ship’s limbo.
If the player succeeds in defeating him, he receives the Blue Stone.
With the three magical stones finally in his possession, the player returns to Salua Castle and uncovers a distortion portal within the princess’s former training room.
He ventures into the Cave of Gaia, a colossal labyrinth leading to the demon world.
Within the demon world, dragons fill the skies with fire, lava flows everywhere, and there is no safe ground. As expected, many powerful enemies unlike any faced before await him.
Using the Wings of Pegasus, the player flies over the lava and enters the Demon Castle.
However, inside the castle lies a vast, empty space where countless enemies await the player. The demon king is nowhere to be seen.
The player discovers a chest and obtains the Red Stone.
He now possesses all four stones; however, the demonic castle appears to hide nothing else. It looks like a large hall with nothing more to do. In reality, this demonic castle is merely an illusion.
Three great towers exist in this world: the Tower of Fire, the Tower of Earth, and the Tower of Water.
The player visits the spirits trapped in the three towers. Through her unique power, Sylvia manages to free the spirits, and with the magical stones, the player dispels the lava and water of the demon world, unveiling the true form of the final castle.
The castle is a vast, single-floor structure. Upon entering, the player is attacked by a large number of monsters. Most are weak, but the griffins and manticores are dangerous.
At the heart of the structure stands a great hall, surrounded by small rooms containing ten Black Knights. Only after defeating them all can the player challenge the final boss.
The demon possesses the power to control dimensions. He calls himself Darkness and takes the form of a knight. Once defeated, he reveals his true identity and his true form as he delivers a long, detailed revelation to the player.
What follows is the true final battle against Grand Eye, a monstrous creature shaped like a giant eyeball.
As Grand Eye falls, his voice grows quiet and his silhouette disintegrates into ashes. Spirits and gods, whose powers were stolen by demons, gather around the player and heal his wounds.
"Dream-hearted hero,
Kneel before the altar of space and time forged by the demon god himself.
From that place, I will return you to your own world."
In Mugen no Shinzo II, the ending screen does not appear immediately after defeating the final boss. Instead, the player regains control during a sequence in which he moves toward the altar inside the Demon Castle to return to his original world.
A cutscene plays as the player approaches the altar, fading into a scene of a hill where the hero stands before the Demon Castle.
"What you see now is the place where you were born and raised.
The Castle of Gaial, forever beautiful.
Memories of the dream world that once haunted your return.
The faces of your many companions cross your mind.
For a brief moment, you are lost in thought.
At last, you take your first step toward your hometown."
What makes Mugen no Shinzo II truly great is its story. Through Elder Ain, its three worlds, and the many mysteries scattered across them, the game succeeds in creating a compelling universe. The game conveys a strong sense of realism through various clever design and usability features.
The most courageous aspect of Mugen no Shinzo II is its commitment to the role-playing game concept, promoting a sense of unity with the protagonist and introducing core genre elements for the first time. For its time, Mugen no Shinzo II represents the most complete example of an orthodox RPG.
As character levels rise and equipment improves, the player takes almost no damage in the Human World, aside from a handful of powerful enemies that can be fled from, and HP and MP also gradually recover as the player moves across the map.
Moreover, the field-of-vision mechanic can be bypassed using tools and spells that negate its effect.
The freedom of movement across the map, which allows the player to reach destinations without encountering enemies, makes it unnecessary to rely on frequent directional hints in dialogue.
In addition, the ability to automatically battle weak monsters and quickly accumulate experience points by holding the space bar or the numeric keypad’s 5 key was an avant-garde feature.
The monsters’ graphics were revolutionary in both scale and visual quality for the era, and the visual production of battle scenes went on to become a defining factor in the genre’s popularity, with the Mugen no Shinzou series serving as the very first example.
The visual quality and rendering speed are exceptionally impressive.
The user-friendly design and quick command execution of Mugen no Shinzo II showed that RPGs could be designed for a broader audience, a development that would become a key factor in the evolution of the genre. The degree to which operations have been simplified was enough that many players later called this a “masterpiece” purely for usability.